Reformist agency: young women, gender, and change in India

This article uses long-term research in rural Uttarakhand, north India, to intervene anthropological debates on agency. In the period between early 2000s and late 2010s, many young women village of Bemni successfully sought opportunities pursue their own goals. We highlight manner which women's agency is ‘reformist’. term useful, part, because it directs attention subtle persistent nature action. Reformist also spotlights how operating within a set norms can, long term, change those norms. At broader more diffuse level, we find that idea reformist helpful simultaneously connoting conformism measure creativity. advance existing studies by highlighting one quite novel way can work, via moving iteratively acquiescing patriarchal pushing boundaries acceptable practice. Agencéité réformiste : les jeunes femmes, le genre, et changement en Inde Résumé A partir de recherches au cours menées dans l’État l'Uttarakhand situé nord l'Inde, cet intervient sein des débats anthropologiques sur l'agencéité. Sur la période comprise entre début années 2000 fin 2010, beaucoup femmes du ont réussi à trouver opportunités leur permettant poursuivre leurs propres objectifs. L'article met évidence manière dont l'agencéité est « ». L'utilité ce terme tient partie qu'il attire l'attention subtile tenace l'action femmes. L'agencéité également lumière façon fait d'agir cadre d'un ensemble normes peut, terme, modifier ces normes. À un niveau plus large diffus, l'idée d'agencéité permet connoter simultanément conformisme une certaine créativité. En outre, avancée proposée par rapport aux travaux existants, grâce que l'article dévoile fonctionnement cette agencéité, l'itération qui tour acquiescent patriarcales repoussent limites pratique acceptable. 2011, I1 was talking 19-year-old woman named Gangotri Bemni2 discussing her struggles stay education. I had already known for eight years, during she been diligent student with aspirations further study. Now, however, temporarily given up attempts school, instead parents’ demands help farm land. But not abandoned dreams altogether said would continue petition parents. Her teacher keen ally he reassured views girls’ education were shifting. ‘If doing what my parents ask, then will arise’, said, ‘We slowly our lives through hard work’. imagined as nature; required ongoing persistence acceding kin, but at same time offered build empowering practices ultimately shift local Seven years later, 2018, indeed transformed. ‘Gangotri-Madam’, now known, completed both high school Bachelors degree worked paid class own. draws ethnographic conducted over sixteen-year consider India exercise teenage into adulthood. Building example Gangotri, two other Sangeeta Meena, contributes wider scholarship marginalized populations ‘reformist agency’ provide basis achieve some life goals even while action commonly reproduces gender draw particular process works, move relatively conformist developing argument, engages across anthropology social science characteristics sections society, especially (e.g. Mahmood 2011; Moeller 2018; Sharma 2008), where ‘agency’ understood ‘the socio-culturally mediated capacity act’ (Ahearn 2001a: 112). Much feminist work 1960s 1970s aimed establishing role active agents often analysing resistance dominant practice view challenging accounts equated men. body motivated, observation very – closely associated historically Protestant ethic related ideas capitalist organization society explicitly excluded nineteenth twentieth centuries (McNay 2013). During last decades century, scholars criticized these earlier agency, arguing they exaggerated knowing, capable ‘agents’ engage ‘resistance’. Insofar others are reworking circumstances live, emerges processes shape subjects’ subordination, rather than reflecting ‘free will’ 2001a). Moreover, highly diverse oriented towards resisting structures, point developed Laidlaw (2013; see Abu-Lughod 1990). The insight outside structures has encouraged emergence ‘non-oppositional’ There several forms that, having change-oriented dimension, operate substantially (Butler 2006; Gowlett 2014; 2008). For example, Butler (2006) argues necessity be constantly re-performed well existence multiple injunctions people (‘be good mother’, ‘be worker’, etc.) opens possibilities ‘resignify’ aspects engaged part conforming They may do so, parodying type exaggerated, ironic conformity or playing off against another (see 2014). concludes possible subordinated subjects ‘to submit provisionally critically [dominant] norms, so ways themselves’ (2006: 534; quoted 2014: 411). These points anticipate Laidlaw's (2013) critique popular dangers equating efficacious structures. Mahmood's (2011) mosque movement Egypt 1990s offers insights relationship conformity. shows gathered mosques teach each about Islamic scriptures, action, appropriate feminine demeanour becoming ethical reproducing standing. Women's actions this only conformed to, actively perpetuated, subordination male authority passivity Robinson herself emphasizes impossibility ‘agency’. Indeed, notes interlocutors denied Nevertheless, commentators have reinterpreted material effective reflective study important shaping lifecourse. apparent extreme involved movement, including explicit denial itself indicative agentive power. He allegiance religious precisely reflection, terms ‘reflective freedom’; ‘submission’ doctrine outcome incessant reflection Studies political difficulty sustaining distinction liberatory hand, conformism, Karim (2008) described use government-sponsored development scheme focused ‘empowerment’ contest class-based account Indian state's Mahila Samakhya programme, risks depoliticizing drawing away from entrenched power, promote progressive politics. Ahearn's (2001b) writing love letters Nepal complements Sharma's showing markedly breaking kinship (i.e. engaging overtly oppositional agency), face major difficulties Durham 2008; Dyson Gold 2018). Accounts non-oppositional ‘conformist’ contributed conversation with, three conceptual advances past thirty years. first determination avoid linking notion bounded self. As out, recognizing much occurs means acknowledging people's ‘capacity might entail working networks embeddedness practical typically reflects deeply held assumptions ‘self’, contexts twenty-first century distributed network inhering an individual. second challenge assumption approaches selfhood reflect any underlying cultural ‘essence’ (Mahmood 2011). preoccupation Egyptian around propriety indelible feature analysis; entry new domains mid-1960s mid-2000s trajectory revival reproduction Egypt. larger implication point, too, psychoanalytical makes formulaic perception detached historical geographical variations Third, expansion intersected changing understanding constitutes structural position relation sex gender. sex-gender system unchanging structure imagining its biological dynamic intertwined operation fields power McNay embedded norms/social networks, does essence, regimes fluid undergird analysis negotiate context village. importance defined creative nevertheless occur largely current discourses which, serve reshape incremental ways. indirect sustained 2014), indicates extent involve (Laidlaw 2013), 2006). Other who explored conform rules them resolved paradox referring parodic potential ‘provisional acquiescence’ tactic By contrast, suggest iterative Young managed considered periodically adjusting expectations lies steep mountainside 2,700 metres altitude Chamoli district state Uttarakhand. 2012, population approximately 1,000, whom roughly 75 per cent General Castes (GCs) 25 Scheduled (SCs). GCs significantly higher landholdings SCs better access practise caste discrimination linked notions purity; forbid entering houses walking seasons. pointed reproductive constrain parts (Carswell 2016; Lukose 2009). Multiple patriarchies influence ability, timing, choices education/work (Donner 2012), sometimes foreclose individuals Carswell 2016). themes constraint contradiction emerge discussions experience formal education, encounter gendered curricula (Jeffrey, Jeffery & increasing parental (Jakimow Patel, 2017; Smith Gergan 2015; Wadley insurmountable obstacles graduating university (Lukose Consistent literature, strong characterize Bemni. Villagers expect should concentrate roles subsistence farmers, wives, mothers, seeking prolonged employment home Klenk 2010). Men tend monopolize decision-making households regarding finance strategy. Since 2000s, men few migrated urban centres, narratives modernization development. return espousing (Dyson 2019a). Kholja-Moolji (2018) traced history such empowerment connections educated woman’ colonial postcolonial Pakistan, charting state-based critiques repressive and, therefore sense, ‘primitive’ culture Jeffrey al. Morarji Narratives ‘educated girl’ (parhi likhi larki) emerged recently, growing engagement areas, lesser enhanced communication technologies, smartphones since 2018. Neither government programmes, recent poorly implemented, nor NGO activity dimension spread narratives. female led questioning It critical awareness among women, older villagers, privilege region Gururani schooling middle-class encouraging re-evaluate approach 2010s onwards. reconsideration occurred later less remote economy primarily agricultural. Households cultivate range crops managing forest surrounding pastoral use. form seasonal transhumance, settlements different altitudes response crop production needs cattle. Women responsible majority agricultural none mechanized, collection products firewood, fodder livestock, leaves cattle bedding sowing, weeding, harvesting, processing crops. home, care feeding, milking, stall cleaning, addition household cooking, clothes washing, childcare, illnesses. Children, particularly girls, enrolled tasks, essential support busy periods year. changed 2003, when author began conducting fieldwork there, present. built road, installed electricity telecommunications tower, constructed paths, community buildings, water tanks 2008 2012. Rising combined dissatisfaction agriculture, change. Parents increasingly identified future economic viability household. profile changed: out mid-twenties search either employment, waiting staff hotels retail sales occupations, temporary service porters Himalayan pilgrimage sites. Between 2003 2020, educational infrastructure cater rising demand schooling. children studied Grade Five Eight primary junior schools Sunti, twenty minutes’ walk away. Some boys wealthier attended newly opened private Sunti Grades Nine Ten. tiny proportion Ten Kurra, ninety wealthiest moved nearby market town 16 kilometres’ villages. Students could complete (up Twelve) living village, albeit ninety-minute Kurra Senior High School. 2017, Eleven Twelve added neighbouring making easier children. National Educational Act (2009) provided free uniforms, books, Ten, midday meals. number students college headquarters Gopeshwar, pursued tertiary correspondence course. Very 50 acquired Until 1980s, saw little reason educate daughters, heavy contribution work. 1990s, sent girls numbers until concern basic literacy numeracy. From enthusiasm rose fairly rapidly, belief wives mothers (cf. 13 aged 16-30 obtained (junior school) pass just 6 pass. figures risen 38 26 cent, respectively. comparison, 48 34 pass, 2012 78 64 2019b; Froerer 2015). (hereafter I) fifteen months 2003-4, focusing children's schooling, encompassing year olds. returned ten times 2011 2019 thirteen months, carried cohort 16-30-year-old four trips. participant open-ended interviews women. Our usually alongside forest, accompanying marriage celebrations, homes. discussed trajectories, progress, pressures shaped careers. However, topics regularly spilled health, economy, relations, addition, quantitative surveys there sixty-three 16- 30-year-old least twelve six degree. Just 2016, 18 30 focuses ‘analytic sets’ group First, case Sangeeta, discuss sixteen unmarried whose acquire employment. Second, experiences Meena fourteen married Among analytic set, caring unwell parents-in-law. all field period, tracking stories 2010s. 11 old studying Five. She second-born child poor GC family, father mother unschooled. Gangotri's Five, ‘Then us home’. added: can't afford more, anyway, she's girl. farming skills. What she'll get carry manure rest life?’ expected 10 balance workloads fields, old, talked anxiously juggling act, but, like argued maintaining crucial persuading keep school. put bluntly: manage duties well, definitely stop me going My brother doesn't worry runs done, never pull him school’. Even age, achieving attending key ways, diligently performing housework. After receiving excellent results persuaded enrol middle neighboring Sunti. Three finished Eight, expanded offer Once timed, eager attend. rehearsed arguments enriched world skills her. home. Less publicly equally enthusiastically, admitted chance socialize friends welcome relief gruelling To parents, made conservative benefits claimed enhance chances marrying man, financially secure future. appeals worked. 2008, handful grade following year, mountainous terrain, senior offering Twelve. villages able whilst still Meanwhile, policy enrolment monthly payments Rs 500 every wanted delay marriage, buoyed serendipitous timing interventions. refused pleas. ‘It's far away, you hungry tired homework. You your fields’. concerned mixing possibility become ‘bad behaviour’ (betamizi). ground, however. enlisted bolster value prospects. ‘hard-headed’ (zid), commented. Eventually agreed condition marry after five formed entire pushed figuratively literally travelling done previously pursuit credentials. land Reflecting tendency noted generally relative innovation conformity, felt supported spend them. no requests in-laws, asked allow ‘private’ (correspondence) BA Social Science Gopeshwar. agreed, continued visiting sit exams. time, explore areas meant forties fifties, sympathetic symbolic daughter certain ‘There's “salaried work” (naukri) fine (theek) … If job nursery family's hoped status acquiring teaching outweigh qualms have. Late secured full-time assistant understaffed, salaries assistants fill gaps. assistants, soon students. appeared pay personal terms. watched sense self-achievement greet ‘Gangotri Madam’. visit blossomed. it, ‘I feel I'm really something (kuch kar rahi hoon). When here, think worth it’. know intended educated. didn't if